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Lebanonclick here to track this topic
Section: History
Related: Lebanon Geography

Early History to Independence
In ancient times the area of Lebanon and Syria was occupied by the Canaanites, who founded the great Phoenician cities and later established a commercial maritime empire (see Phoenicia ). Lebanon's cities as well as its forests and iron and copper mines (since exhausted) attracted the successive dominant powers in the Middle East. The Phoenician cities occupied a favored position in the Persian Empire and were conquered by Alexander the Great. The region came under Roman dominion starting in 64 BC (there are notable Roman ruins at Baalbek ) and was Christianized before the Arab conquest in the 7th cent. By then the Maronites had established themselves—a cardinal fact in the history of Lebanon, which long remained predominantly Christian while Syria became Muslim. Later (11th cent.) the Druze settled in S Lebanon and in adjacent regions of Syria, and trouble between them and the Christians was to become a constant theme in regional history.

The Crusaders (see Crusades ) were active in Lebanon (late 11th cent.) and were aided by the Lebanese Christians. After the Crusaders, Lebanon was loosely ruled by the Mamluks (c.1300). Invasions by Mongols and others contributed to the decline of trade until the reunification of the Middle East under the Ottoman Turks (early 16th cent.). Under Ottoman control, Lebanon had considerable autonomy, and powerful families ruled the country.

Many Western religious missions and businesses were established in the area in the 19th cent. Conflict among the religious communities, culminating in massacres of the Maronites by the Druze in 1860, led to intervention by France (1861), and the Ottoman sultan was forced to appoint a Christian governor for Lebanon. The French were given the mandate of Syria after World War I by the League of Nations; Lebanon was a part of that mandate.

The French, being Catholic, separated Lebanon (home of most of the Maronite Catholics) from Syria, thus creating a new state. There was much discontent and, among the Muslims, a desire for independence within a wider Arab state. In 1926 the mandate was given a republican constitution. A treaty with France in 1936 provided for independence after a three-year transition period, but it was not ratified by France. In World War II the French Vichy government controlled Lebanon until a British-Free French force conquered (June-July, 1941) the Lebanese coast. The Free French proclaimed Lebanon an independent republic. Elections were held in 1943, and, after considerable controversy, Lebanon became independent on Jan. 1, 1944.

New Nation, New Leadership
In 1945, Lebanon became a member of the United Nations, and all British and French troops were evacuated by the end of 1946. As a member of the Arab League, Lebanon declared war on Israel in 1948 but took little part in the conflict. In 1952, after the election of Camille Chamoun as president, Lebanon formed closer ties with the West. In the spring of 1958, opposition to Chamoun's pro-Western policies and his acceptance of U.S. aid under the Eisenhower Doctrine erupted in rioting in Tripoli, Beirut, and elsewhere. The rioting grew into full-scale rebellion, and Chamoun called in U.S. forces (July, 1958). Gen. Fouad Chehab, a nonpolitical personality who had kept the army out of the civil strife, was elected to succeed Chamoun, and the rebellion ebbed. By autumn U.S. forces had left the country.

Lebanon subsequently steered a course closer to that of the other Arab nations. The secession of Syria (1961) from the United Arab Republic revived once again the rift between pro-Western and pan-Arab elements in Lebanon. In 1962 a military coup was attempted in Beirut but was crushed. Chehab was succeeded in 1964 by Charles Hlou ; Suleiman Franjieh was elected president in 1970.

Lebanon, Israel, and the Palestinians
During the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Lebanon gave verbal support to the Arab effort against Israel but did not become involved in any military action. After that, however, Lebanon's position became increasingly difficult because of the activities against Israel of Palestinian terrorists based in Lebanon. Israel repeatedly accused Lebanon of not doing enough to control the terrorists, and in 1968 Israeli forces began a series of reprisals against Palestinian strongholds in Lebanon. In 1969 fighting broke out between the Lebanese army and the Palestinian commandos after the government had threatened to limit the latter's activity.

After the bloody suppression in 1970-71 of the guerrillas in Jordan, large numbers of Palestinians fled into S Lebanon and Beirut. Again in 1972 heavy fighting took place between the Lebanese army and the Palestinians. Anti-Israeli terrorist attacks continued into the 1970s, and Israel continued its attacks on Palestinian guerrilla bases in S Lebanon. Lebanon did not enter the Oct., 1973, Arab-Israeli War , nor did the Lebanese army interfere with Palestinian guerrillas operating in S Lebanon.

Civil War
Lebanon became embroiled in civil war among the Christians, Muslims, and Palestinians from early 1975 to late 1976. At the request of Lebanon's president, Syrian forces entered Lebanon (Apr., 1976), halting Muslim and Palestinian advances. An estimated 50,000 Lebanese were killed and twice that number wounded. The country became devastated, the economy crippled, and tourism plummeted to a standstill. A cease-fire in Oct., 1976, proved unstable, and hostilities resumed full scale in 1977. In response to guerrilla attacks by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), Israel occupied S Lebanon in Mar., 1978, but withdrew in June. This came with the installation of a UN peacekeeping force of 6,000, which was unable to effectively maintain control of Lebanese militia activity.

In 1981 fighting continued between Christian and Syrian forces, and Beirut was subjected to Israeli air raids in reprisal for PLO attacks. In June, 1982, Israeli forces invaded Lebanon, primarily to eliminate Palestinian guerrilla bases. Nearly 7,000 Palestinians were forced to leave Lebanon, which was accomplished under the supervision of a Multinational Force (MNF) comprised of U.S. and European-allied troops, who left immediately afterward. On Aug. 23, Bashir Gemayel (see under Gemayel , family) was elected president of Lebanon, but he was killed three weeks later by a bomb. In the wake of his death, Christian Phalangist forces entered the Palestinian refugee camps in Israeli-controlled areas and massacred some 1,000 civilians, provoking an international outcry.

Bashir Gemayel's brother, Amin, was elected president a few days later on Sept. 20. Another multinational force, of U.S. Marines and British, French, and Italian soldiers, returned to Lebanon to monitor the Lebanese militias. A U.S.-aided peace treaty, concluded with Amin Gemayel and Israel in May, 1983, called for the removal of foreign troops. Syria rejected the peace agreement, refusing to evacuate its holdings. As Israeli troops slowly left the Beirut and southern area, Lebanese militias fought among themselves in the wake of the Israeli withdrawal. In Apr., 1983, a terrorist bombing partially destroyed the U.S. embassy in Beirut, killing 50 people. On Oct. 23, 260 U.S. Marines and 60 French soldiers were killed by a truck bomb.

The multinational force left Lebanon in 1984. Israel completed its withdrawal in mid-1985 but left soldiers to work in conjunction with the Christian South Lebanese Army (SLA) to maintain a security ( “buffer” ) zone. Palestinian action gradually resumed as PLO members and units returned to S Lebanon. Beirut remained a major battle area, and in Feb., 1987, Syrian troops moved into the city to suppress the warring factions. By this time, Iranian-supported Lebanese Shiite groups had become notorious for their holding of Western hostages. When Gemayel's term ended in 1988, it proved impossible to hold national elections and find a successor. A transitional military government was led by Gen. Michel Aoun, whose aim of ousting Syrian forces from Lebanon sparked new rounds of battles and bloodshed.

A tentative peace accord was reached between Christian and Muslim representatives, but Aoun complained that the peace accord failed to pressure the Syrians to withdraw. On Nov. 22, 1989, the newly elected Syrian-backed president, Ren Moawad, was assassinated; he was succeeded by Elias Hrawi. Revolts by Aoun in late 1989 and 1990 were put down with the help of Syrian forces, and Aoun was ousted from the country. In Nov., 1990, major rival Shiite Muslim groups signed an agreement to end their fighting.

Post-Civil War Lebanon
In early 1991, Lebanese troops organized to regain control of the south from PLO guerrillas and Israelis who controlled a 6-mi (10-km) deep security zone. There were repeated and largely successful attempts to disband rival militias. A treaty of friendship and cooperation with Syria in 1991 essentially guaranteed Syrian domination of Lebanon's foreign relations. Meanwhile, beginning in the same year, Lebanon participated in peace talks with Israel, Syria, and a joint Palestinian-Jordanian delegation. International pressures on Lebanon eased with the release of the last U.S. and Western hostages in 1992.

By the mid-1990s, neither the Israeli nor the Syrian forces had quit the country, and clashes between Palestinian units and Israeli troops, as well as among the existing Lebanese militias, continued. Intense fighting erupted between Shiite Hezbollah (Party of God) guerrillas and Israel in S Lebanon in early 1996, as the guerrillas fired rockets into Israel and Israel retaliated with shelling and bombing. A tentative cease-fire was reached in late April; the episode generated a heavy flow of refugees from areas of S Lebanon. The many years of heavy fighting in Lebanon crippled the nation's infrastructure and economy, and devastated tourism, but a major rebuilding effort was undertaken in the 1990s.

In 1995, President Hrawi's term in office was extended by three years by a constitutional amendment. Gen. Emile Lahoud was elected president in 1998. Fighting between Israel and Hezbollah guerrillas erupted again in June, 1999, following an announcement by Israel's new prime minister, Ehud Barak , that he would withdraw Israeli troops stationed in S Lebanon within a year. In May, 2000, Israeli troops engaged in a gradual withdrawal from S Lebanon, turning over its position to its Lebanese Christian ally, the South Lebanon Army (SLA), but the SLA collapsed, leading Israel to accelerate its withdrawal, which was completed by late May. The 2000 parliamentary elections brought the opposition back into power, and Rafiq Hariri became prime minister; he had previously held the office from 1992 to 1998.


Sections in this article:
Introduction
Land and People
Economy
Government
History
Bibliography


Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Copyright (c) 2003.

eLibrary content for this topic is list below

Magazines and Newspapers for: Lebanon
U.S. SENATOR SAM BROWNBACK (R-KS) CHAIRMAN U.S. SENATOR SAM BROWNBACK (R-KS) HOLDS HEARING ON LEBANON'S FUTURE
Date: 06/14/2000 ; Reading Level: 9.
Publication: Washington Transcript Service ; Author: Not specified ; Source: TVRAD
THE FUTURE OF LEBANON:DANIEL PIPES
Date: 06/14/2000 ; Reading Level: 11.
Publication: Congressional Testimony ; Author: Not specified ; Source: TVRAD
THE FUTURE OF LEBANON:SAM BROWNBACK
Date: 06/14/2000 ; Reading Level: 14.
Publication: Congressional Testimony ; Author: Not specified ; Source: TVRAD
FOREIGN AFFAIRS: The Hezbollah Model
Date: 05/18/2002 ; Reading Level: 12.
Publication: National Journal ; Author: James Kitfield ; Source: MAGAZINES
How to Reshape Lebanon's Image
Date: 06/05/2000 ; Reading Level: 9.
Publication: Newsweek International ; Author: Not specified ; Source: MAGAZINES
Gulf Arabs Rediscover Delights of Lebanon
Date: 03/02/2003 ; Reading Level: 10.
Publication: Reuters US Online Plus ; Author: Edmund Blair ; Source: NEWSPAPERS
Show me the sales. (Lebanon Cycle Center-bike shop)(Cover Story)
Date: 07/01/1997 ; Reading Level: 7.
Publication: Dealernews ; Author: Watanabe, Laurie ; Source: MAGAZINES
The lessons of Lebanon
Date: 06/05/2000 ; Reading Level: 10.
Publication: U.S. News & World Report ; Author: Fouad Ajami Fouad Ajami ; Source: MAGAZINES
From June 1967 to June 1997: learning from our mistakes.
Date: 06/22/1997 ; Reading Level: 12.
Publication: Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) ; Author: Maksoud, Clovis ; Source: MAGAZINES
Profile: Growing debate in Lebanon whether the Syrian troops should remain as peacekeepers in their country
Date: 12/11/2000 ; Reading Level: 9.
Publication: All Things Considered (NPR) ; Author: NOAH ADAMS ; Source: TVRAD

Pictures and Maps for: Lebanon
Biqfaya village, Lebanon .Sept 82.An unidentified mourner throws himself upon the coffing of Lebanon's murdered President Bashir JMAYEL during the funeral procession. (PAR116832)
Date: 01/01/1982 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Micha Bar Am ; Source: PICTURES
Lebanon.Beirut.1982. A Israeli soldier dashing across the "Muslim" passage sheltering from fire, he was part of the Israeli troops that raided into Lebanon in June 82 (PAR112111)
Date: 01/01/1982 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Micha Bar Am ; Source: PICTURES
June 1982, Rashidiya/Lebanon.An Israeli army father meets up with his son a conscript, during the Israeli Armed Forces invasion of Lebanon. (PAR130684)
Date: 01/01/1982 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Micha Bar Am ; Source: PICTURES
6th June 1982, an Israeli armored column advances into Lebanon.The three pronged attack was aimed at destroying the main military bases of the Palestine Liberation Organisation.More than 2 (PAR124613)
Date: 01/01/1982 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Micha Bar Am ; Source: PICTURES
Lebanon.June.82.The constant move of Lebanese refugees, shuttling between the war zone (Beirut mostly), and southern villages and back to safer areas.They are passing through Israeli held (PAR112122)
Date: 01/01/1982 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Micha Bar Am ; Source: PICTURES
LEBANON: Bekaa Valley 1991 Kurdish guerilla movement PKK in training camp. (PAR10946)
Date: 01/01/1991 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Nikos Economopoulos ; Source: PICTURES
LEBANON: Bekaa Valley 1991 Kurdish guerilla movement PKK in training camp. (PAR10961)
Date: 01/01/1991 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Nikos Economopoulos ; Source: PICTURES
LEBANON: Bekaa Valley 1991 Kurdish guerilla movement PKK in training camp. (PAR10963)
Date: 01/01/1991 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Nikos Economopoulos ; Source: PICTURES
LEBANON: Bekaa Valley 1991 Kurdish guerilla movement PKK in training camp. (PAR10966)
Date: 01/01/1991 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Nikos Economopoulos ; Source: PICTURES
LEBANON: Bekaa Valley 1991 Kurdish guerilla movement PKK in training camp. (PAR10944)
Date: 01/01/1991 ; Reading Level: 0.
Publication: Magnum Photos ; Author: Nikos Economopoulos ; Source: PICTURES

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Magazines & Newspapers
list item U.S. SENATOR SAM BROWNBACK (R-KS) CHAIRMAN U.S. SENATOR SAM BROWNBACK (R-KS) HOLDS HEARING ON LEBANON'S FUTURE
list item THE FUTURE OF LEBANON:DANIEL PIPES
list item THE FUTURE OF LEBANON:SAM BROWNBACK
list item FOREIGN AFFAIRS: The Hezbollah Model
list item How to Reshape Lebanon's Image

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Pictures & Maps
list item Biqfaya village, Lebanon .Sept 82.An unidentified mourner throws himself upon the coffing of Lebanon's murdered President Bashir JMAYEL during the funeral procession. (PAR116832)
list item Lebanon.Beirut.1982. A Israeli soldier dashing across the "Muslim" passage sheltering from fire, he was part of the Israeli troops that raided into Lebanon in June 82 (PAR112111)
list item June 1982, Rashidiya/Lebanon.An Israeli army father meets up with his son a conscript, during the Israeli Armed Forces invasion of Lebanon. (PAR130684)

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